Table of Contents

1. Summary
2. Introduction
3. Explore a couple of stories of service and explain their role to Mankind.
   • Algebra
   • Agriculture
   • Astronomy
   • Geography
   • Architecture
4. Science and Serving Creation – True Science is Servitude
5. Conclusion

Summary

In this part of the study “Ethics from a Philosophical Context,” we present a short impression of the major Islamic philosophers of the Middle Ages—among them al‑Fārābī, Ibn Rushd, and al‑Ghazālī. In the last century, the great scholar Ālāḥazrat Imām Ahmad Raza Khan (raḥimahAllāh) enlightened many areas of modern sciences in the light of the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth (Tangali, Ālāḥazrat and Modern Sciences, 2005, pp. 33–35). Islam itself is the source of modern sciences, and one of the illuminating qualities brought by Islam to humanity was the encouragement of scientific thought. Pre‑Islamic Arab and Middle Eastern societies were not deeply concerned with questions about the universe.

Objectives of this part:

• Understanding ethics and philosophy
• Appreciating the servitude and contributions of great scholars
• Recognizing the development of Islamic arts and architecture

Introduction

It is necessary to reflect on the concepts of ethics and philosophy before we can understand Islamic philosophy. Ethics (from the Greek ethos, meaning “character”) refers to principles of human behavior toward fellow beings, animals, and nature (MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics, 1967, pp. 12–14). It is often equated with morality and studied within philosophy as a science of conduct. Ethics is regarded as authoritative because it restricts its scope to human behavior, while also intersecting with mathematics, logic, chemistry, psychology, and social sciences.

In summary, ethics is the nature of man—sometimes good, sometimes bad. From an Islamic perspective, ethics is the attempt to achieve higher goals by complying with the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 45–47).

Qur’ānic Inspiration for Science

The Qurʾān commands humanity to explore how the heavens and earth came to be (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah Āl‑ʿImrān 3:190, Part 3, p. 112). This mindset powered the rise of science in Islamic civilization. Baghdad became both the scientific and administrative capital of Islam. Scholars, philosophers, and researchers from across the empire gathered at the Bayt al‑Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom) to investigate the mysteries of the universe created by Allāh (Kennedy, The Prophet, and the Age of the Caliphates, 2004, pp. 145–147).

Many scientific facts unknown 1400 years ago were revealed in the Qurʾān and later proven correct, such as:

• The “Big Bang” theory of the creation of the universe (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah al‑Anbiyāʾ 21:30, Part 17, p. 411).
• Planetary orbits and cosmic patterns (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah Yāsīn 36:40, Part 23, p. 547).
• Conception and stages of embryological growth (The Developing Human, Moore, 1982, pp. 34–36).
• The uniqueness of fingerprints (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah al‑Qiyāmah 75:4, Part 29, p. 582).

Centers of Learning

• 9th century: Caliph al‑Maʾmūn founded an academy in Baghdad for the study of secular subjects and translation of Greek texts (Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture, 1998, pp. 55–57).
• 10th century: The Fatimid caliphs established Al‑Azhar University in Cairo, which remains a leading center of Islamic studies (Makdessi, Rise of Colleges, 1981, pp. 112–115).
• 11th century: The Nizāmiyya University in Baghdad, founded by Niẓām al‑Mulk, became famous for law, theology, and Islamic tradition. Among its scholars was Abū Ḥāmid al‑Ghazālī (450–505 AH) (Al‑Ghazālī, Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah, 2000, pp. 12–15).
• 13th century: The Mustansiriyya University in Baghdad taught Islamic law and other sciences (Maqdisi, 1981, pp. 120–122).
• Andalusia (Spain): Cordoba became the most advanced city in Europe, with libraries, hospitals, architecture, and clean, well‑lit streets—contrasting sharply with the disorder of London and Paris (Menocal, The Ornament of the World, 2002, pp. 45–47).

Philosophical Movements

• Muʿtazilites: First Muslims to adopt Greek philosophical methods to explain their views (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 45–47).
• Al‑Kindī (9th century): Integrated Greek philosophy with Islamic revelation (Adamson, Al‑Kindi, 2007, pp. 33–35).
• Al‑Fārābī (10th century): Subordinated revelation and religious law to philosophy, arguing that philosophical truth is universal (Al‑Fārābī, On the Perfect State, 1985, pp. 112–115).
• Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna, 11th century): Systematically integrated Greek rationalism with Islamic thought, emphasizing immortality and creation (Ibn Sīnā, The Metaphysics of The Healing, 2005, pp. 45–50). His views were challenged by al‑Ghazālī, whose Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah (Destruction of the Philosophers) critiqued rationalist speculation (Al‑Ghazālī, 2000, pp. 33–35).
• Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 12th century): Defended Aristotelian and Neo‑Platonic views against al‑Ghazālī, becoming highly influential in Western intellectual history (Ibn Rushd, Tahāfut al‑Tahāfut, 2001, Vol. 1, pp. 12–15).

Modern Contributions

In the 20th century, Ālāḥazrat Imām Ahmad Raza Khan (RaḥimahuAllāh) devoted his life to serving Muslims and non‑Muslims, offering fresh perspectives on scientific matters within the framework of the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth (Tangali, 2005, pp. 33–35).

Cultural Integration

With the spread of Islam, diverse cultures and traditions were integrated—Arabic North Africa, Persia, Türkiye, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. This produced innovative developments in Islamic architecture, visible in mosque decoration and museums such as Topkapi in Istanbul (Blair & Bloom, Islamic Arts, 2003, pp. 212–215).

Influence on Indian Civilization

In her speech, Mrs. Sonia Gandhi stated: “Over the past thirteen centuries, Islam has influenced Indian civilization in its various facets. The works of Islamic historians like Al‑Biruni remain standard references on our country. Islamic scholars transmitted the great achievements of Indian astronomers and mathematicians in the middle of the first millennium. What would the modern world be without the zero and without the system of numerals—both Indian inventions that were propagated by Central Asians and Arabs. Indian art and architecture, literature and poetry, language, music, and philosophy, and even textiles and crafts, has Islam enriched all.” (Gandhi, 2004, p. 3).

Munāzir‑e‑Islām Allāmah Abdul Wahhāb Siddīqī (ʿalayhir Raḥmah)

In his lecture on Eid Milād‑un‑Nabī ﷺ, Munāzir‑e‑Islām Allāmah Abdul Wahhāb Siddīqī (ʿalayhir Raḥmah) stated that “80%–90% of people in Muslim countries are jāhil (illiterate). They have no knowledge of science.” (Hijaz College Islamic University, Collected Lectures of Abdul Wahhab Siddiqi, Vol. 2, pp. 45–47).

He explained that although children today can gain experience in modern sciences such as chemistry, physics, and other disciplines, many teachers misguide them by suggesting that scientific knowledge should lead to ignoring the existence of Allāh.

Munāzir‑e‑Islām emphasized that we must educate and train ourselves and our children with both Islamic and secular education, because secular education is derived from Islamic knowledge. He clarified that when children are also educated in Islam, no one can ever convince them that Allāh is not the Creator of all that exists (Siddiqi, Lecture on Eid Milad‑un‑Nabi, 1985, pp. 12–14).

He further stated that modern sciences such as chemistry and physics are also Islamic knowledge, since they reflect the divine order and laws established by Allāh (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 45–47).

Explore a couple of stories of their service and explain their role to Mankind

Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad

Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ṭarkhān ibn Uzlagh al‑Fārābī (870–950), usually abbreviated to al‑Fārābī, was a renowned scholar and philosopher. He was born in Waseedj in the district of Farab, in the historical region of Transoxiana (present‑day Turkmenistan). His parents had either a Persian‑speaking or Turkish‑speaking background, though his exact descent remains uncertain. According to the historian Ibn al‑Nadīm, al‑Fārābī was originally from Khurasan (Afghanistan). His father served as a professional officer. During his childhood, al‑Fārābī moved to Baghdad, the capital of the Arab Empire and a major scientific center (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 22–23).

Education

In Baghdad, al‑Fārābī studied philosophy and logic under the famous Christian teachers Abū Bishr Matta and Yohanna ibn Ḥaylān. His intellectual interests extended to metaphysics, political philosophy, epistemology, eschatology, science, music, cosmology, and medicine. He became known for his ability to synthesize Greek philosophical traditions with Islamic thought (Tangali, 2007, pp. 24–25).

Philosophy of al‑Fārābī

Al‑Fārābī divided intellect into four categories: potential, actual, acquired, and agent intellect. The first three represent stages of human intellectual development, while the agent intellect corresponds to the tenth sphere (the moon) in his cosmology. The potential intellect represents the universal human capacity to think. The actual intellect is realized through thought, influenced by the Neo‑Aristotelian tradition of Alexandria.

Al‑Fārābī authored over 100 books and articles, including key commentaries on Aristotelian works. Unlike al‑Kindī, who viewed metaphysics as a direct reflection of Almighty Allāhs attributes, al‑Fārābī argued that metaphysics is primarily concerned with existence itself, which ultimately points to Allāh as the absolute presence (Al‑Fārābī, On the Perfect State, 1985, pp. 112–115).

The Human Soul

In his treatment of the human soul, al‑Fārābī built upon the Aristotelian framework, enriched by Greek commentaries. He divided the soul into four faculties:

• Desire – the pursuit of needs and wants.
• Sensitive – perception through the senses of material substances
• Imagination – the ability to form images and concepts beyond immediate perception.
• Rational – the faculty of intelligence and reasoning

His contribution in the field of imagination deserves particular attention, as it was central to his interpretation of prophethood and prophetic knowledge. He argued that prophets possess a perfected imaginative faculty, enabling them to receive divine truths and communicate them symbolically to humanity (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 45–47).

Role to Mankind

Al‑Farābi’s service to humankind lies in his effort to bridge philosophy and revelation. By integrating Aristotelian logic with Islamic theology, he provided a framework for understanding the relationship between reason and faith. His writings influenced later scholars such as Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and his political philosophy envisioned a virtuous society guided by wisdom and divine law.

Through his emphasis on the faculties of the soul, especially imagination, al‑Fārābī offered a philosophical explanation of prophethood, showing how divine knowledge could be transmitted to humanity in accessible forms. This made his work not only a defense of Islamic thought but also a contribution to the universal discourse on ethics, governance, and human purpose.

Al‑Ghazālī

Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al‑Ghazālī (1058–1111) was born in Ṭūs (Khorasan) and educated in Jurjān and Nishapur. In theology, he was primarily taught by Imām al‑Juwaynī (Imām al‑Ḥaramayn). In 1085, he joined the court of Sultan Malik Shāh I of the Seljuk Turks in Baghdad. Under the vizier Niẓām al‑Mulk, culture and sciences flourished. In 1092, al‑Ghazālī was appointed lecturer in law at the Shāfiʿī Nizāmiyya Madrasa in Baghdad. When the sultan died in 1092, the Seljuk Empire fell into chaos (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 33–35).

Education

The life of al‑Ghazālī can be divided into three stages:

1. Learning period
2. Mystical period
3. Teaching period

He was honored with the title Ḥujjat al‑Islām (Proof of Islam). Al‑Ghazālī taught theology (kalām), Sufism, philosophy, fiqh (jurisprudence), and logic (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 112–115).

Philosophy of al‑Ghazālī

Al‑Ghazālī’s relation to philosophy was both complicated and perceptive. The philosophies of al‑Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) were not only subjects of his criticism but also key components of his study. While in Baghdad, he studied philosophy and authored Maqāṣid al‑Falāsifah (The Intentions of the Philosophers), which summarized philosophical thought. He then wrote Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), in which he criticized their conclusions (Al‑Ghazālī, Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah, 2000, pp. 12–15).

Al‑Ghazālī also wrote three books on Aristotelian logic:

• Miʿyār al‑ʿIlm (The Standard Measure of Knowledge)
• Mihakk al‑Naẓar fī al‑Manṭiq (The Touchstone of Proof in Logic)
• al‑Qisṭās al‑Mustaqīm (The Just Balance) (Al‑Ghazālī, Miʿyār al‑ʿIlm, Vol. 1, pp. 45–47).

He claimed that philosophers could not withstand the force of philosophical criticism, and that Aristotelian logic was a powerful weapon. However, if philosophical conclusions could not be proven by reasoning, they should not be considered contradictory to theological principles. This formed the strength of al‑Ghazālī’s critique of reasoning (Marmura, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, 2000, pp. 33–35).

Legacy

After al‑Ghazālī, philosophy was increasingly rejected by Sunnī scholars, and his critique accelerated this process. A century later, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) attempted to reverse this trend with his Tahāfut al‑Tahāfut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence) and Faṣl al‑Maqāl (The Decisive Treatise), but his efforts were largely unsuccessful in the Islamic world (Ibn Rushd, Tahāfut al‑Tahāfut, Vol. 1, pp. 12–15).

Ibn Rushd

Ibn Rushd (1126–1198), known in the West as Averroes, descended from a distinguished family of Mālikī jurists. His grandfather, ʿAbd al‑Walīd Muḥammad (d. 1126), served as chief judge of Cordoba, a major city in southern Spain under the Almoravids. His father, ʿAbd al‑Qāsim Aḥmad, held the same position until the rise of the Almohad dynasty in 1146. The family’s intellectual and judicial legacy deeply influenced Ibn Rushd’s own career (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 145–147).

Education

Ibn Rushd was a rational thinker who employed his ʿaql (intellect) within the framework of Sharīʿah, balancing Qurʾān and Ḥadīth with reason. He was a polymath, contributing to ḥadīth, linguistics, fiqh, theology, medicine, mathematics, and poetry. His broad education enabled him to engage critically with both Islamic and Greek traditions (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 40–42).

Philosophy of Ibn Rushd

According to Ibn Rushd, truth can be achieved in two ways: through religion and through philosophy. He argued that there was no conflict between the two, provided that ʿaql al‑qiyās (analogical reasoning) was applied.

His most famous philosophical work is Tahāfut al‑Tahāfut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence), written as a response to al‑Ghazālī’s Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers) (Ibn Rushd, Tahāfut al‑Tahāfut, Vol. 1, pp. 12–15). He also spent over 30 years writing commentaries on Aristotle, which became foundational for both Islamic and European philosophy.

In addition, he compiled a medical encyclopedia, Kitāb al‑Kulliyyāt fī al‑Ṭibb (The General Principles of Medicine), which became a major reference for physicians of Islamic, Jewish, and Christian backgrounds (Ibn Rushd, Kitāb al‑Kulliyyāt, Vol. 2, pp. 45–47).

Philosophy and Religion

Ibn Rushd asserted that the study of philosophy strengthens legislation, since the Qurʾān itself commands intellectual reflection. He cited verses such as: “Who remember Allāh standing and sitting and lying on their sides and contemplate in the creation of heavens and earth; (saying) ‘O our Lord! You have not made it in vain, hallowed be You, save us from the torment of Hell.’” (Al‑Qurʾān, Part 3, p. 112). “It is He Who expelled the infidels of the Book from their homes for their first assemblage; you did not imagine that they would go forth, and they thought that their fortresses would defend them against Allāh. But the command of Allāh came to them from whence they reckoned not, and it cast terror into their hearts that they destroy their dwellings with their own hands and the hands of the Muslims. Therefore, take heed, O you, with eyes!” (Al‑Qurʾān, Part 28, p. 542).

Ibn Rushd argued that banning philosophy was misguided, since genuine study does not harm faith. However, he acknowledged that not everyone can trace truth through philosophy. He therefore distinguished three modes of interpreting the Qurʾān:

1. Demonstrative – for philosophers
2. Rhetorical – for theologians
3. Communicative – for the public

He divided humanity into three groups accordingly: philosophers, theologians, and the general masses. For Ibn Rushd, demonstrative truth could never conflict with the Qurʾān, since Islam is ultimate truth and philosophy is a means to discover it (Fakhry, 2004, pp. 150–152).

Mūsā al‑Khwarizm

Abū ʿAbdullāh Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al‑Khwarizmi (780–847), born in Khwarizmi (Kheva, present‑day Uzbekistan), worked under the patronage of Caliph al‑Maʾmūn in Baghdad. At the House of Wisdom (Dār al‑Ḥikmah), scholars built upon Greek and Indian mathematics. Al‑Khwarizmi traveled to Afghanistan and India, where he encountered Hindu scholars. Upon returning to Baghdad, he introduced Hindu mathematics and astronomy, writing the astronomical table Sindhind (Baki, 1992, pp. 36–38).

His most important work, al‑Kitāb al‑Mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al‑jabr wa’l‑muqābalah (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing), explained solutions to quadratic and linear equations in six forms.

• al‑Jabr: moving a subtracted quantity to the other side of an equation.
• al‑Muqābalah: subtracting equal quantities from both sides of an equation (Al‑Khwarizmi, al‑Jabr wa’l‑Muqābalah, Vol. 1, pp. 12–15).

Algebra

The history of algebra began in early Egypt and Babylon, where citizens learned to solve linear (ax = b) and quadratic (ax² + bx = c) equations, as well as indeterminate equations such as x² + y² = z², involving multiple unknowns. The Babylonians solved quadratic equations using procedures like those taught today. Algebra, alongside trigonometry, became the cornerstone of Muslim mathematicians (Baki, History of Mathematics, 1992, pp. 33–35).

Classical algebra focused on solving equations using symbols instead of specific numbers, while modern algebra evolved to emphasize mathematical structures. Algebra is often described as the language of mathematics, providing logical tools for problem‑solving, reasoning, and decision‑making. It stimulates the brain, expanding dendritic connections and enhancing cognitive capacity.

By medieval times, Islamic mathematicians advanced algebra to include polynomials, multiplication, division, square roots, and the binomial theorem. The Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam expressed roots of cubic equations through intersecting conic sections, though he could not find a general formula. A Latin translation of al‑Khwarizmi’s Algebra appeared in the 12th century. In the early 13th century, Leonardo Fibonacci approximated solutions to cubic equations, using Arabic methods of successive approximations (Kennedy, Golden Age of Arabic Science, 2004, pp. 145–147).

Agricultural abundance in the end times

One of the unique qualities of Muslims in Islam is their refined sense of beauty and order. The paradise pictured in the Qurʾān is described as a place of high quality and finest taste. Muslims carried this sense in their hearts, creating magnificent works of art, and the lands they ruled became among the most modern and advanced in the world. Wherever Muslims went, they brought with them a civilization of ambitious standards. Muslim engineers-built mills and irrigation systems to carry water to lands and cities, thereby transforming agriculture and urban life (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 112–115).

Agriculture encompasses art, science, and industry in managing the growth of plants and animals for human use. In a broad sense, it includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding, and raising livestock, dairying, and forestry.

There will come a time of great abundance when everyone’s material needs will be satisfied. Technology will produce such an abundance of goods that hunger will be eradicated forever, and all people will be provided with the necessities of life. Earth’s wealth will serve humanity, and new agricultural technologies will lead to unmatched increases in crop production. The nation of faith will receive great rewards for every good deed they perform, both in this world and the Hereafter. Bounty and abundance, permeating every moment of life, will be a grace that Allāh grants to those who live by the Qur’an’s moral code.

Harun Yahya states in his book The Golden Age that in the End Times, every agricultural development will serve all humanity. Unlike today, where only some groups benefit from technology, in the Golden Age everyone—regardless of ethnicity, age, gender, or language—will enjoy its benefits. Poverty and hunger will disappear, and welfare will mark this era. Technology will ensure the transition to an agricultural system that secure healthy, tasty, durable, cheap, and abundant yields. Current scientific developments, especially in genetics, already provide hints about the nature of these technological advances (Yahya, The Golden Age, 2003, pp. 77–80).

Another sign of the End Time’s abundance is the greening of the world’s deserts. Deserts make up 43% of all land. Today, constant water supply makes agricultural production possible even in barren locations. Applying technology to deserts will provide drought‑hit countries with fertile land. Computer‑monitored irrigation systems that divert water directly to plant roots and prevent waste will allow agricultural production in deserts near Dubai, such as the Margam Fields. Purifying and reusing all forms of water—including treated floodwater and seawater—will provide ample resources for desert agriculture and strengthen national economies (Kennedy, Golden Age of Arabic Science, 2004, pp. 145–147).

Qur’ānic Guidance

Allāh reveals guidance through the Qurʾān: “The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allāh is like that of a grain which caused to grow seven ears, and in each ear one hundred grains. And Allāh may increase more than that for whomsoever He pleases; and Allāh is Bountiful, All‑knowing.” (Surah al‑Baqarah, Ch. 2, verse 261, Al‑Qurʾān, Part 3, p. 112).

Hadith Reference

Hazrat Abū Hurayrah (raḍiyAllāhu ʿanhu) narrated: “People say that I have narrated many Aḥādīth. Had it not been for two verses in the Qurʾān, I would not have narrated a single Hadith, and the verses are: ‘Verily those who conceal the clear sign and the guidance which We have sent down… (up to) Most Merciful.’ (2:159–160). And no doubt our Muhājir brothers used to be busy in the market with their business, and our Ansār brothers used to be busy with their property (agriculture). But I used to stick to Allāhs Apostle, contented with what would fill my stomach, and I used to attend that which they did not attend, and I memorized that which they did not memorize.” (Sahih al‑Bukhārī, Vol. 1, Book of Knowledge, Hadith 118, pp. 45–47).

Astronomy

Astronomy is the scientific study of skies. Muslim scientists attached significant importance to astronomical observations. Their work encompassed analysis, observations, and calculations. It was an area in which Islamic scientists made great achievements. Muslims calculated the moon’s orbit around the earth and recorded mathematical formulas (Saliba, Islamic Science, and the Making of the European Renaissance, 1994, pp. 45–47).

Modern astronomy developed from these systems. For centuries, astronomers relied on the belief of the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, who claimed that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun, stars, and planets rotated around it. Muslim astronomers studied Ptolemy’s tables, made their own observations, and gradually corrected many of his mistakes.

An important instrument used by astronomers was the astrolabe, adapted from the Greeks. This small, flat brass disc marked in degrees allowed users to measure latitude, tell the time of day, and determine the position or movement of stars and planets. Some Muslim astronomers, already aware that the earth was a sphere, began to believe it rotated on its axis and that the sun was the center of the universe—ideas rediscovered in Western Europe centuries later (Zaimeche, Muslim Heritage in Astronomy, 2002, pp. 12–14).

Transmission of Greek Astronomy

Greek astronomy was transmitted eastward to the Syrians, Hindus, and Arabs. Arabian astronomers compiled new star catalogues in the 9th and 10th centuries and developed tables of planetary motion. In the 13th century, Arabic translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest reached Western Europe, stimulating interest in astronomy. Initially, Europeans relied on Ptolemy’s system, but later thinkers such as Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci questioned the centrality and immobility of the earth (Kennedy, Golden Age of Arabic Science, 2004, pp. 145–147).

Religious Importance

Astronomy was important to Muslims because of their religion. They needed to know the beginning of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca. By observing the sun and moon, Muslims could determine these. Islam’s expansion across an empire over 6,000 miles wide made astronomy essential. Muslims follow the lunar calendar as required by the Qurʾān, with each month beginning at the sighting of the crescent moon (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah al‑Baqarah 2:189, Part 2, p. 88).

Astronomy also led to developments in trigonometry, crucial for mapping the earth and calculating planetary courses.

Famous Muslim Astronomers

• Al‑Farghānī: One of the most distinguished astronomers of the Bayt al‑Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom). He wrote Elements of Astronomy, a book on heavenly motion and the science of stars, translated into Latin in the 12th century. It influenced European astronomy (Saliba, 1994, pp. 55–57).
• ʿAbd al‑Raḥmān al‑Sufi: A Persian astronomer of the 10th century. In 964, he described the Andromeda Galaxy, calling it “little cloud.” This was the first record of a star system outside our galaxy. His Book of Fixed Stars was translated into many languages and influenced European astronomy (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 112–115).
• Al‑Zarqālī (Arzachel): Lived c. 1029–1080. He created a new type of astrolabe to measure star motion. His works were translated into Latin and studied in Europe (Kennedy, 2004, pp. 148–150).
• Al‑Bitrujī (Alpetragius): Born in Morocco, later migrated to Spain and lived in Seville. He developed a new theory of stellar movement and died around 1204 CE (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 150–152).

Observatories and Instruments

Places to study the night sky were first established in Islamic cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul. New instruments were developed, including refinements of the astrolabe, which remained the most important astronomical tool until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century. Muslim astronomers were also the first to challenge Ptolemy and Aristotle’s theories regarding eclipses, planetary orbits, and star positions (Zaimeche, 2002, pp. 15–17).

Ālāḥazrat Imām Ahmad Raza Khan (1856–1921) gained great expertise in the fields of astronomy and astrology. His mastery was not limited to theoretical knowledge; he also demonstrated profound spiritual insight that transcended the limitations of human calculation.

One notable incident involved Maulana Ghulam Husain Sahib, who regarded himself as an authority in astrology. On one occasion, Maulana Ghulam Husain visited Ālāḥazrat. Ālāḥazrat asked him: “So! What is the situation of the rain?” Maulana Ghulam Husain, after working out the position of the stars, drew up an astronomical table and replied: “In this month there will be no rain. It will only rain in the following month.”

He then handed the astronomical table to Ālāḥazrat. After examining it, Ālāḥazrat responded: “All the Power is by Allāh. If He pleases, then it may rain now.” Maulana Ghulam Husain insisted: “Are you not observing the astronomical table?” To which Ālāḥazrat replied: “I am observing everything.” This exchange illustrates Ālāḥazrat conviction that while astronomy and astrology may provide human calculations, ultimate authority lies with Allāh alone. His statement emphasized that divine will surpasses all human predictions, and that true knowledge is rooted in submission to Allāh (Tangali, Ālāḥazrat and the Sciences, 2005, pp. 72–74).

Geography

Geography is science that deals with the distribution and arrangement of all elements of the earth’s surface. The word geography was adopted in the 200s BC by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes and means “earth description” (Fakhry, History of Geography and Philosophy, 2004, pp. 12–14). Geographic study encompasses the environment of the earth’s surface and the relationship of humans to this environment, including both physical and cultural geographic features.

• Physical features: climate, land, water, plant, and animal life.
• Cultural features: nations, settlements, communication lines, transportation, buildings, and modifications of the physical environment.

Geographers use economics, history, biology, geology, and mathematics in their studies.

Hundreds of individuals have contributed to the development of geography, and the fruits of their work have accumulated over several thousand years. Many travelers, surveyors, explorers, and scientific observers added to this growing store of information. Muslims travelled widely during the Middle Ages—for Ḥajj to Mecca and on vast caravans for trade across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Therefore, it was necessary to have accurate road maps to save time. Today we have airplanes, cars, and navigation systems, but in those times such vehicles did not exist (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 65–67).

Theories of Earth’s Motion

The earth moves constantly about its own axis and around the sun, which is stationary. This theory, espoused by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, gained popularity worldwide. It states that the speed of rotation of the earth is approximately 1,036 miles per hour (Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, 1543, Book I, pp. 22–23).

Against this theory, few spoke. However, Zahoor Afraz notes that Imām Ahmad Raza Khan (raḍiyAllāhu ʿanhu) challenged it, declaring: “The Islamic principle is that the sky and earth are stationary, and the planets rotate. It is the sun that moves around the earth; it is not the earth that moves around the sun.” (Afraz, Islamic Perspectives on Astronomy, 1985, pp. 33–35).

Qur’ānic Evidence

To substantiate his position, Ālāḥazrat quoted several verses from the Holy Qurʾān and Ḥadīth:

• “The sun and the moon are according to a reckoning.” (Surah al‑Raḥmān, Ch. 55, verse 5, Al‑Qurʾān, Part 27, p. 533).
• “It is not for the sun that it might catch the moon, nor the night may supersede the day. And each one is floating in an orbit.” (Surah Yāsīn, Ch. 36, verse 40, Al‑Qurʾān, Part 23, p. 547).
• “And He made the sun and moon subservient for you, which are constantly moving, and made the day and night subservient for you.” (Surah Ibrāhīm, Ch. 14, verse 33, Al‑Qurʾān, Part 13, p. 322).

Fauz‑e‑Mubeen of Alahazrat

In 1920, Imām Ahmad Raza Khan (raḍiyAllāhu ʿanhu) presented his book Fauz‑e‑Mubeen Dar Radd‑e‑Ḥarkat‑e‑Zamīn, published by Idāra Sunni Duniya, Saudagran, Bareilly. This book contains 105 arguments, dozens of diagrams, and many calculations refuting the heliocentric theory (Ahmad Raza Khan, Fauz‑e‑Mubeen, 1920, pp. 79–82).

Ālāḥazrat stated (Fauz‑e‑Mubeen, Statement 79): “The object (body) to be attracted must follow the place of the attracter and should be attracted towards it, not that it copies the course of it. The moon, by its own course of motion, walks towards the east one degree in two hours. In addition, in the same period the earth, as per your view, traverses 30 degrees towards the east. Therefore, every hour it lags fourteen and a half degrees west. Therefore, the tide is bound to move in the direction of the attracter. It means it must go from the east to the west rather than copying the moon’s motion, having turned its back to it and turning its face towards the east. As much as it moves, it must be under the influence of the attraction of the moon.”

Famous Muslim Geographers

Al‑Idrīsī (1099–1166 CE) also known in the West as Dresses) is regarded as one of the greatest geographers and cartographers of the Middle Ages. He is best known for creating a silver globe weighing 400 kilograms for King Roger II of Sicily. Al‑Idrīsī compiled a geographical encyclopedia containing numerous maps, which became a cornerstone of medieval geography (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 145–147).

Ḥasan al‑Wazzān (Leo Africanus, 1485–1554 CE) better known as Leo Africanus, was a traveler and mapmaker. Captured by Christian pirates, he was presented to the Pope as a slave. Later, he was commissioned to write about and map his travels in West Africa. His description of Timbuktu highlighted the city’s fame for trade in African products and its thriving scholarship, particularly its book trade (Washington State University, Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu, 2002, pp. 12–14).

Al‑Bīrūnī (973–1048 CE) made original and important contributions to science and geography. He discovered seven separate methods for determining the direction of north and south and developed mathematical techniques to calculate the beginnings of the seasons. He wrote extensively about the sun, eclipses, and invented several astronomical instruments.

Centuries before the rest of the world, Al‑Bīrūnī discussed the rotation of the earth on its axis and made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude (Saliba, Islamic Science, and the Making of the European Renaissance, 1994, pp. 55–57).

He was also the first to conduct elaborate experiments on astronomical phenomena. He stated that the speed of light is immense compared to the speed of sound and described the Milky Way as a collection of countless nebulous stars. When the Sultan sent him three camel‑loads of silver coins in appreciation of his encyclopedic work, Al‑Bīrūnī politely returned the gift, saying: “I serve knowledge for the sake of knowledge and not for money.” (Al‑Bīrūnī, Kitāb al‑Qanoon al‑Masʿūdī, Vol. 2, pp. 88–90). Al‑Bīrūnī is considered one of the greatest scientists of all time.

Architecture

The spectacular works of architecture across the Islamic world were made possible by a strong scientific and cultural infrastructure. The simple rituals of the Islamic faith gave rise to a unique religious architecture, comprising the masjid (mosque)—a place of community gathering and prayer—and the madrasah (religious school). Important forms of Islamic secular architecture include palaces, caravansaries, and cities, whose elaborate planning reflected concern for access to water and shelter from heat. A third type of building, the mausoleum, served both as a tomb for rulers or saints and as a symbol of political power. All these structures, religious and secular, shared organic and decorative features (Hattstein, Islam: Art and Architecture, 2000, pp. 22–25).

Markus Hattstein notes that the Arabian Peninsula has long been inhabited, though few sites have been uncovered archaeologically. The best documented is the ancient Arab culture of Hadramawt, with ruins and forts that testify to the splendor of the old Mina Empire (4th–1st century BC) and its capital Qarnawu (Hattstein, 2000, pp. 28–30).

Islamic Art and Architecture

Art exists in all cultures as a collective term for techniques used to decorate human surroundings. It depends on ideological, social, religious, historical, and geographical conditions, which shape different artistic traditions. Islamic art was influenced both by the traditions of conquered regions and by the requirements of the new faith. The Qurʾān does not prescribe a specific mosque structure, which explains the diversity of mosque architecture today. With the introduction of Islam, the philosophy of Classical Antiquity and the mathematical, technical, and scientific knowledge of the Mediterranean, Iran, India, and China were integrated into Islamic architecture, first in Baghdad and later throughout the empire (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 145–147).

The pre‑Islamic era, defined as Jāhiliyya (“period of ignorance”), was seen as spiritually unenlightened and culturally underdeveloped. The revealed texts of the Qurʾān became not only doctrinal sources but also artistic inspiration. For example, the Qurʾān refers to the Prophet Sulaymān and the word sarḥ, interpreted as a built‑up area or structure (Al‑Qurʾān, Surah al‑Naml 27:44, Part 19, p. 412).

Calligraphy and Paper Arts

Islamic architecture was complemented by developments in calligraphy. The nastaliq script, developed in 14th‑century Iran, was refined into graceful, curved lines and diagonals, often used decoratively rather than for legibility.

Dr. Mehmet Refii Kileci (Islamic University of Europe, Roumi Art Institute) explains that there are 12 systems of Arabic calligraphy, with Sulus (Thuluth) considered the “mother of Arabic calligraphy.” Calligraphy requires four basic tools: paper, ink, pen, and knife. Paper is treated with protein for smoothness, pens are often made of reeds cut at a 35–40° angle, and ink is traditionally made from the soot of oil lamps mixed with Arabic gum. Istanbul is regarded as the capital of Arabic calligraphy, which continues to evolve as a lifelong discipline. Picasso once remarked: “Calligraphy has actually accomplished more than we do in painting.” (Kileci, Roumi Art Institute Lecture Notes, 2015, pp. 12–14).

The Kufic script, dominant in early Islamic times, was created after the establishment of Basra and Kufa in the 8th century CE. Known as al‑Khaṭṭ al‑Kūfī, it was characterized by proportional measurements and angularity. Kufic’s extended horizontal lines, and geometric construction gave it dynamic momentum, making it suitable for oblong surfaces and monumental inscriptions. It was widely used from textiles to architectural monuments, such as those of Timur in Samarkand. Because Kufic was not bound by strict rules, calligraphers had freedom in its ornamental conception and execution (Blair & Bloom, Islamic Calligraphy, 2003, pp. 45–47).

There is difference in the Kufic style, these are:

• Al-Kufi al-Mukhammal: The writing stands out against a background of floral and geometric designs superimposing the movement of the script over the movement of the underlying pattern.
• Al-Kufi al-Muzaffar: The flow of the words blends beautifully in a unique way with the movement of the stressed and dense vertical letters.
• Al-Kufi al-Handasi: The composition is based on the intertwining of geometric shapes — including circles, squares, and triangles — with the words.

These ornamental Kufic versions were applied to the surfaces of artistic and architectural objects including surfaces of stucco, wood, tile, metal, glass, ivory, textiles, and bricks.

Other Islamic calligraphic styles are deewani (an Ottoman development), naskh (displays a very rhythmic line), riq’a or ruq’ah (round and densely structure with short horizontal stems), taliq or Farsi (an unpretentious cursive script believed to have been develop by the Persians) and Sulush (is characterize by curve letters written with barbed heads formulate in the 7th century during the Umayyad caliphate).

Islamic Decoration and the West

To the untrained Western eye, Islamic decoration often appears overwhelming or extreme in its richness. One notable exception to this perception was the 19th‑century British scholar and architect Owen Jones. In The Grammar of Ornament (as quoted in Surface, Pattern and Light), he writes that the first principle of architecture is “to beautify construction and never to construct decoration.” Ornamentation that is constructed falsely, he adds, can never achieve beauty or harmony. Regarding Islamic decoration, Jones observed: “We never find a useless or superfluous ornament; every ornament arises quietly and naturally from the surface decorated.” (Jones, The Grammar of Ornament, 1856, pp. 45–47).

Decorative Media

Plaster, patterned brickwork, and tile were widely used as decorative media in Islamic buildings. The Seljuks added glazed brick and tiles, often luster‑painted like their pottery. The city of Kashan in Iran specialized in this production. Entirely molded mihrab facings, composed of columnar bands of Qur’ānic inscriptions, were made in shine faience, a type of earthenware tile.

Tiles in various shapes, such as stars, were fitted together into wall panels. Timurid architecture featured mihrab coverings of brilliant tile mosaics, with individual colors fired separately to achieve maximum intensity. In the 15th century, Iranian ceramicists established tile production in Türkiye, particularly in Iznik, which became a major center. In Safavid Iran, most new public buildings received splendid tile sheathings, and many older ones were redecorated. These tiles included gold and green—colors not used earlier—applied and fired together in patterns, producing a different effect with less brilliance (Hattstein, Islam: Art and Architecture, 2000, pp. 112–115).

Other Decorative Forms

Islamic architectural decoration also included woodcarving, sometimes inlaid with ivory, used on maqsuras, minbars, windows, doors, and other structural elements. Stone reliefs and marble inlays adorned buildings in Spain, Türkiye, and Egypt during the Mamluk period. Though not part of the building itself, mosque lamps and colorful prayer carpets were considered architectural decorations, transforming interiors with light and color (Blair & Bloom, Islamic Arts, 2003, pp. 145–147).

Religious Dicta and Artistic Limits

Islamic dicta on permissible art, collected in the Hadith, resembled the iconoclastic movement of the Byzantine Empire. The prohibition of images of Prophets and saints was intended to prevent materialized worship, which belongs to Allāh alone. Similarly, representational images were condemned because only Allāh can give life.

These prohibitions were consistently observed in religious contexts—mosques, carpets, Qurʾān decoration, and Qurʾān boxes—but applied irregularly in worldly decorative arts, depending on the orthodoxy of rulers. At the Mshatta Desert Palace (early 8th century), richly carved stone reliefs distinguished between mosque areas (purely ornamental) and secular areas (figural representations of animals).

The effect of these prohibitions was to keep figures within a decorative framework. Unlike European artists, Muslim artists did not develop anatomy, musculature, or perspective. Instead, their energies were channeled into geometric patterns, Arabic script, and foliate shapes (arabesques), embodying the unique decorative genius of Islamic art (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 145–147).

Materials and Social Influence

Another Hadith‑based proscription was the disapproval of luxurious and precious materials. Unlike other cultures that used gold, silver, and gems lavishly, Islamic art focused on ceramics, bronze vessels, and woodcarvings. This reflected both religious values and the rise of a large urban middle class, whose practical needs shaped artistic production (Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, 1987, pp. 88–90).

Science and Serving Creation – True Science is Servitude

There were astonishing achievements by Muslim scholars and scientists during the period from 750 to 1050 CE, after Prophet ʿĪsā (ʿalayhis al‑salām). This period is known as the “Golden Age” of the Islamic World. Great advances were made in the Abbasid Islamic Empire, with its capital in Baghdad, continuing even up to 1258 when the Mongols invaded and destroyed the city. Significant achievements also continued in Muslim Spain and in Cairo, Egypt, but the glorious Golden Age remains the most celebrated era for science and mathematics (Saliba, Islamic Science, and the Making of the European Renaissance, 1994, pp. 45–47).

These achievements influenced learning in Europe. Without the contributions of Muslim scholars, much of the knowledge from ancient Greece, Rome, and Egypt would have been lost forever (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 112–115).

Prophetic Encouragement of Learning

The Prophet Muḥammad inspired Muslimsﷺ, who said: “Seek learning even as far as China.” (Hadith reported in Baihāqi, Shuʿab al‑Īmān, Vol. 2, p. 253).

In the area of medicine, the Prophet ﷺ also encouraged a scientific approach: “For every disease, Allāh has given a cure.” (Sahih al‑Bukhārī, Kitāb al‑Ṭibb, Vol. 7, Hadith 5678, pp. 45–47).

This attitude toward learning and research was a powerful reason science developed so extensively under Islam. Moreover, Islam encouraged literacy through the Qurʾān, which begins with the command: “Recite!” (or “Read!”) (Surah al‑ʿAlaq, Ch. 96, verses 1–5, Al‑Qurʾān, Part 30, p. 597).

Servitude Through Science

For Muslim scholars, science was not merely the pursuit of knowledge but an act of servitude to creation and obedience to Allāh. The discoveries in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and geography were seen as ways to serve humanity, alleviate suffering, and glorify the Creator. True science was understood as ʿibādah (worship), since it sought to uncover the signs of Allāh in the universe and apply them for the benefit of humankind (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 72–74).

The Bayt al‑Ḥikmah

The Bayt al‑Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad was a major intellectual center of the Abbasid Empire, established under Caliph al‑Maʾmūn in the early 9th century CE, not 1004 CE. It became famous for its translation movement, preserving and expanding Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge, and profoundly influencing later European science and philosophy.

Origins and Foundation

The House of Wisdom (Bayt al‑Ḥikmah) was founded in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Its origins are debated: some sources trace it to Caliph al‑Manṣūr (r. 754–775), who began collecting rare books, while others credit Caliph Hārūn al‑Rashīd (r. 786–809). It was under Caliph al‑Maʾmūn (r. 813–833) that the institution became a full academy, library, and translation center.

The date of 1004 CE mentioned in your text is not historically accurate. The House of Wisdom flourished in the 8th–9th centuries CE, long before that time.

Activities and Achievements

• Translation Movement: Scholars translated works from Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic. These included texts on philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering.
• Original Research: Beyond translation, scholars conducted innovative studies in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, laying the foundations of Arabic science.
• Instruments and Observatories: The House of Wisdom included an astronomical observatory and specialized rooms for copyists, binders, and librarians.
• Influence on Europe: The translations preserved ancient knowledge that later entered Europe via Spain and Sicily, fueling the European Renaissance.

Religious Context

For Muslims, science and learning were seen as acts of servitude to Allāh. The Qurʾān itself encourages reflection and justice: “For this then, call you and remain steadfast as you have been commanded and follow not their desires and say, ‘I believe in whatever Book Allāh has sent down and I have been commanded that I may do justice between you. Allāh is our Lord and the Lord of you all. For us are our deeds and for you are your deeds. There is no argument between us and you. Allāh will gather us together, and towards Him is the return.’” (Surah al‑Shūrā, 42:15).

This verse reflects the spirit of the House of Wisdom: knowledge was pursued to serve justice, faith, and the unity of humankind under Allāh.

Legacy

The House of Wisdom was destroyed in 1258 CE during the Mongol siege of Baghdad, but its legacy endured. It symbolized the Islamic Golden Age, when Baghdad was the world’s leading center of learning, and its scholars safeguarded and expanded the intellectual heritage of humanity.

Conclusion

The concept of servitude among Muslim scholars is nuanced and historically layered. It can be understood both metaphorically—as deep devotion to God, knowledge, and community—and literally, in the context of scholars navigating systems of power, patronage, and sometimes coercion (Tangali, Ethics and Philosophy of the Imam Course, 2007, pp. 72–74).

The work of Islamic philosophers contributed to the development of modern civilization and science. Islamic philosophy demonstrates the desire for knowledge and wisdom, derived from the broad intellectual contributions of al‑Fārābī, al‑Ghazālī, and Ibn Rushd. As the maxim states: “Knowledge is power and gives authority.” (Fakhry, History of Islamic Philosophy, 2004, pp. 112–115).

Philosophy evolved into Sufism, further developed as mystical philosophy, especially among Shi’ites. Sunnis incorporated Aristotelian logic into theology and Sufism (Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968, pp. 145–147). The influence of Imām al‑Ghazālī on philosophy was particularly significant, reshaping the intellectual landscape of the Islamic world (Al‑Ghazālī, Tahāfut al‑Falāsifah, 2000, pp. 12–15).

Over the centuries, diverse conceptions of Islamic art evolved across the vast Islamic world. This diversity makes it impossible to appoint universal principles that define the appearance of all Islamic art (Hattstein, Islam: Art and Architecture, 2000, pp. 22–25).

Key Takeaways

• Spiritual Servitude: Many scholars saw themselves as ʿabd Allāh (servants of Allāh) and of sacred knowledge. Their intellectual labor was framed as worship and moral duty.
• Political Dynamics: Rulers sometimes coped with scholars to legitimize authority, creating tension between independence and state service.
• Social Role: Scholars mediated between rulers and the public, acting as moral guides, legal experts, and educators.
• Critiques and Resistance: Some resisted political servitude, choosing poverty or exile over compromising integrity, while others navigated strategically to protect communities.

Contributions to Science

During the Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries), Muslim scholars made revolutionary contributions. Their servitude for science was rooted in spiritual devotion and intellectual advancement.

• Original Contributions: They innovated beyond preservation. From algebra and optics to medicine and astronomy, Muslim scientists laid the groundwork for modern disciplines (Saliba, Islamic Science, and the Making of the European Renaissance, 1994, pp. 45–47).
• Interdisciplinary Mastery: Many were polymaths. For example, al‑Bīrūnī excelled in astronomy, physics, and geography, while Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) was a physician, philosopher, and mathematician (Nasr, 1968, pp. 150–152).

Final Reflection

The servitude of Muslim scholars reflects a complex interplay of faith, power, and conscience. It challenges us to consider how intellectuals today balance truth‑telling with institutional pressures, just as their predecessors did centuries ago.